有时可以表示时间:



Late that autumn, his work finished, he prepared to return to his institute.







表示原因:



Her eyes dimmed with tears, she did not see him enter.







条件:



All things considered, her paper is of greater value than yours.







Ⅲ 虚拟语气







1. that从居中:







1) wish, would rather (sooner), had better:



I wish I were as strong as you.



I wish I had paid more attention to our pronunciation.



I wish I remembered the address.







I would rather they came tomorrow (you had gone there too).



I had rather (that) you told him than I did.







2) suggest, order, demand, propose, command, request, desire, insist 等动词后的宾语从句:



The commander ordered that all civilians (should) be evacuated.



He asked that he be given an opportunity to try.



She urged that he write and accept the post.







3) it is desired, it is suggested, it is requested, it was ordered, it was proposed, it is necessary, it is important, it has been decided 等结构后的主语从句中.



It was arranged that they leave the following week



It will be better that we meet some other time.







4) suggestion, motion, proposal, order, recommendations, plan, idea等后面的表语从句和同位语从句:



His sole requirement is (was) that thy system be adjusted.







2. 在某些句型中







1) it is time that



It is time that we went (或should go) to bed.



It is high time we (should) put an end to this controversy.







2) as if (though) 引起的从句:



They talked (are talking) as if they had been friends for years.



It seems as if it was (were) spring today.



He acts (acted) as if (though) he were (was) an expert.







3) 以lest, for fear that 和 in case 引起的从句(这时谓语多用 should +动词原形):



He took his raincoat with him lest it should rain.



He put his coat over the child for fear that (或lest) he should catch cold.



I'll keep a seat for you in case you should need it.







4) 以whatever, whoever, no matter what这类代词或词组引起的从句(这时, 谓语多用may加动词原形构成):



Whatever defects he may have, he is an honest man.



Come what may, we will go ahead. 不管发生什么情况, 我们都要干下去.



I accept that he is old and frail; be that as it may, he's still a good politician.



我承认他年老体衰, 然而尽管如此, 它仍是优秀的政治家.







3. 条件句







1) 虚拟条件句主要有下面两类:







a) 表示现在及将来情况(表示纯然假设或实现的可能性不大的情况):



谓语主要形式如下(be多用were这个形式):



从句 主句



过去式 would + 动词原形



If I were you, I wouldn't lose heart.



How nice it would be if you could stay a bit longer.







b) 表示过去情况的虚拟条件句(与事实完全相反的假设情况), 谓语主要形式如下:







从句 主句



had + 过去分词 would have + 过去分词







She would have come if we had invited her.



If I hadn't taken your advice, I would have made a bad mistake,



You wouldn't have caught cold if you had put on more clothes.







2) 有时候, 条件从句表示的动作和主句表示的动作, 发生的时间是不一致的(如一个是过去发生的, 一个是现在发生的). 这时, 动词的形式要根据表示的时间来调整. 这种句子可以称为错综时间条件句.



If he had received six more votes, he would be our chairman now.



If we hadn't got everything ready by now, we should be having a terrible time tomorrow.







3) 有时假设的情况并不以条件从句表示, 而是通过一个介词短语来表示.



Without music, the world would be a dull place.



We could have done better under more favorable conditions.



That would have been considered miraculous in the past.



But for the storm, we should have arrived earlier.







4) 如果条件句从句中包含有 were, had, should 或could, 有时可把if省略掉, 并把were, had, should或could放在主语前面.



Had we made adequate preparation, we might have succeeded.



Should there be a flood, what should we do?



Were it not for their assistance, we would be in serious difficulty.







Ⅳ 介词







1. 合成介词和复杂介词







1) 合成介词: inside, into, onto, out of, outside, throughout, upon within, without







2) 复杂介词: according to, along with, apart from, as for, as to, because of, by means of, in front of, in spite of, instead of, in accordance with, on account of, on behalf of, owing to, due to, together with, up to, with regard to, prior to等







2. 介词在句末:



This is what he is interested in.



Does everyone has a seat to sit on?







3. 名词加介词 ( n + prep)







1) 某些名词之后要求用某些介词: solution to, faith in, glance at, need for



2) 某些名词之前要求用某些介词: on one's guard, at one's request, in all probability, to my delight







4. 动词加介词







1) Vi + prep: prevail on, appeal to, fall into, apply for, touch upon



2) Vt + O + prep: lay emphasis on, take advantage of等



3) Vi + adv + prep:



I don't wish to break in on your thoughts.



The family came up against fresh problems.



You're not telling me the whole story. You're holding out on me.



She got off with him soon after she began to work at the institution.







4) Vt + O + adv +prep:



You shouldn't take your resentment out on me.



We shouldn't put the shortage down to bad planning.







5. 形容词加介词



about --- anxious, careful, careless, certain, considerate, enthusiastic, guilty, happy, mad, particular, sad, sure, timid, unhappy, etc



at --- awkward, bad, clever, disappointed, disgusted, good, marvellous, quick, skilful, skilled, useless, weak, etc



for --- convenient, eligible, grateful, homesick, hungry, necessary, noted, perfect, responsible, etc



from --- evident, exempt, inseparable, safe, tired, etc



in --- deficient, expert, liberal, quick, rich, successful, weak, etc



of --- apprehensive, characteristic, critical, destructive, envious, hard, inconsiderate, impatient, dependent, jealous, positive, scared, sensible, short, sick, suspicious, typical, worthy, etc



on --- dependent, keen, intent, etc



to --- acceptable, accessible, agreeable, alive, attentive, blind, comparable, courteous, deaf, destructive, essential, favourable, hostile, indifferent, married, obedient, parallel, preferable, related, responsible, sensitive, suitable, unjust, etc



with --- awkward, bored, careful, disappointed, generous, identical, ill, impatient, popular, sick, wrong, etc







Ⅴ 连词



1. 并列连词



1) 表示意义的引申: and, both…and, not only…but(also), as well as, and …as well, neither…nor



2) 表示选择: or, either…or



3) 表示转折: but, while, whereas, yet, however/nevertheless(也可认为是副词)



4) 表示因果: for, so, therefore, hence



2. 从属连词



1) 表示时间: when, while, as, after, before, since, until(till), as soon as, once



2) 表示原因: because, as, since, now that, seeing that



3) 表示条件: if, unless, in case, provided(that), suppose, as long as, on condition (that),



4) 表示其他关系: (al)though, than, as/so…as, lest, in order that, so…that







Ⅵ 定语从句







1. 限制和非限制性定语从句: 限制性定语从句是名词词组不可缺少的一个组成部分, 去掉了会造成病句或意义不明确; 非限制性定语从句属于补充说明性质, 去掉了不会影响主要意义, 通常用逗号与它的先行词分开.



The boys who wanted to play football were disappointed when it rained.



The boys, who wanted to play football, were disappointed when it rained.







如果定语从句的先行词是专有名词, 或是带有形容词性物主代词(my, his, etc)或形容词性指示代词(this, that, etc)作限定词, 其后的定语从句通常都是非限制性的:



Mary Smith, who is in the corner, wants to meet you.



Her mother, who had long suffered form arthritis, died last night.



All these books, which have been donated by visiting professors, are to be used by the postgraduates.







在非限制性定语从句中只能用who/whom指人, 用which指物,通常不用that替代.



My father, who had been on a visit to America, returned yesterday.



All the books, which had pictures in them, were sent to the little girl.







2. 定语从句的引导词



1) that, who, whom: 非限制性定语从句, 如果修饰人, 一般用who, 有时用that (作主语时用who较多). 如果关系代词在从句中作宾语, 就应当用宾格 whom 或that, 但在大多数情况下都可以省略掉, 在口语中可用who代替whom.



Here is the man (whom) you've been looking for.



He is a man (that) you can safely depend on.



The people (who/that) you were talking to were Swedes.



There are some people here who I want you to meet.







但在介词后只能用whom:



This is the man to whom I referred.







但在口语中一般都把介词放到句子后面去, 这时可用that, 但省略时更多一些.



Have you met the person about whom he was speaking?



Have you met the person (that) he was speaking about







The girl to whom I spoke is my cousin.



The girl (who/that) I spoke to is my cousin.







2) 限制性定语从句如果修饰"物", 用关系代词that的时候较多, 也有时用which.. 当这个代词在从句中是用作宾语时, 在绝大多数情况下都是省略的, 特别是口语中(尤其是当被修饰的词是all, everything等词时):



Have you everything you need?



(Is there) anything I can do for you?



All you have to do is to press the button.







在介词后只能用which, 在口语中一般都把介词放到从句后部去, 这时可以用that, 但省略的时候更多一些:



The tool with which he is working is called a wrench.



The tool (that) he is working with is called a wrench.







This is the question about which we've had so much discussion.



This is the question (that) we've had so much discussion about.







定语从句一般是修饰名词或代词的, 但间或也可以修饰整个句子a), 或是句子的一部分 b), 引导词用which:



a) They have invited me to visit their country, which is very kind of them.



The activity was postponed, which was exactly what we wanted







b) When deeply absorbed in work, which he often was, he would forget all about eating and sleeping.



She was very patient towards the children, which her husband seldom was.







3) whose: 在表示"．．．的"这个概念时, 可用所有格 whose; whose 用于指物, 有时可与of which交替使用, 通常的词序是 名词词组 + of which:



Is there anyone in your class whose family is in the northeast?



We had a meeting whose purpose was completely unclear. (…the purpose of which was…)



He's written a book the name of which I've completely forgotten. (…whose name I've…)







of which前的名词词组也可以由some, any, none, all, both, several, enough, many, most, few以及基数词担任; 这些词也能用在 of whom之前.



The buses, most of which were already full, were surrounded by an angry crowd.



It's a family of eight children, all of whom are studying music.







4) 关系副词 when, where, why: 它们的含义相当于 at which, in which, for which, 因此它们之间有交替使用的可能.



The day when he was born…



on which he was born…



which he was born on…







The office where he works…



at which he works…



which he works at…







有时可用that替代关系副词, 在口语中that 可省略.



Every time (that) the telephone rings, he gets nervous.



This was the first time I had serious trouble with my boss.







Do you know anywhere (that) I can get a drink?



This is the place (where) we met yesterday.







That is the reason (why) he did it.







在the way 后也可用that 替代in which, 在口语中that也可省略.



This is the way (that/in which) he did it.



That's the way I look at it.







3. 如果定语从句中谓语为 there is, 作主语的关系代词也常可省掉:



I must make full use of the time there is left to me and do as much as I can for the people.



This is the fastest train (that) there is to Nanjing.







4. 定语从句的简化: 定语从句与不定式结构, -ing分词结构, -ed分词结构以及无动词分句等有着转换关系.



He was the only one to realize the danger (= who realized the danger).



The woman driving the car (= who was driving the car) indicated that she was going to turn left.



The man injured by the bullet (= who was injured by the bullet) was taken to hospital.



All the women present (= who were present) looked up in alarm.







Ⅶ 倒装







1. 全部倒装和部分倒装: 如果谓语在主语前面, 就是倒装语序. 倒装语序又分为全部倒装和部分倒装. 在全部倒装的句子中, 整个谓语都放在主语的前面:



Here are some registered letters for you.



In came a man with a white beard.







在部分倒装的句子中只是谓语中的一部分(如助动词, 情态动词, 或系动词be等)放在主语前面, 其余部分仍在主语后面:



Under no circumstances must a soldier leave his post.



I couldn't answer the question. Nor could anyone else in our class.



Only in this way is it possible to accomplish the above-mentioned glorious task.







2. 以neither, nor, so等开始的句子: 由so引起的表示前面所说情况也适用于另一人(或东西)的句子(肯定句), 由neither, nor引起的表示前面所说情况也适用于另一人(或东西)的句子(否定句), 助动词或be置于主语前.



"We must start for the work-site now". " So must we."



I am quite willing to help and so are the others.







He didn't drop any hint. Nor (Neither) did his secretary.



"I won't do such a thing." "Nor (Neither) will I."







如果一个句子只是重复前面一句话的意思, 尽管是用so开头, 语序也不要颠倒.



"It was cold yesterday." "So it was."



"Tomorrow will be Monday." "So it will."







3. 当句首状语为 never, little, not only, not until, hardly, scarcely等否定词或有否定意义的词语时, 一般引起部分倒装.



No longer are they staying with us.



No sooner had he arrived there than he fell ill.



Under no circumstances could I agree to such a principle.







4. 表示位置或方向的副词提前, 谓语动词为 go, come等表示位置转移的动作动词而主语又较长时, 通常用全部倒装:



There was a sudden gust of wind and away went his hat.



The door burst open and I rushed the crowd.



There comes the bus!



Now comes your turn.







如果主语是代词, 仍用正常语序:



There comes your turn.







有here引起, 谓语为be的句子, 也要倒装:



Here is China's largest tropical forest.



Here are some picture-books.







如果主语是代词, 仍用正常语序:



Here we are. This is the new railway station.



"Give me some paper." "Here you are."







5. 表语和系动词提前:







a) 介词短语: On the other side was northern Xinjiang.



Near the southern end of the village was a large pear orchard.







b) 形容词: Very important in the farmer's life is the radio weather report.







Worst of all were the humiliations he suffered.







c) 副词: Below is a restaurant.



Southwest of the reservoir were 2,000 acres of sandy wasteland.







d) 分词: Housed in the Cultural Palace are a library, an auditorium and recreation rooms.



Hidden underground is a wealth of gold, silver, copper, lead and zink.







Lying on the floor was a boy aged about 17.



Standing beside the table was an interpreter.







6) 句首状语若由 only + 副词, only + 介词词组, only + 状语从句构成, 引起局部倒装:



Only yesterday did he find out that his watch was missing.



Only through sheer luck did he manage to get some tickets.



Only because there were some cancelled bookings did he get some tickets in the end.







有not only开头的句子或分句, 往往引起局部倒装:



Not only did he complain about the food, he also refused to pay for it.



Not only did the garage overcharge me, but they hadn't done a very good repair job either.







Ⅷ 比较级和最高级







1. 无比较级和最高级的形容词及副词: complete, perfect, utter, etc







2. 比较从句



1) as…as, almost/just/nearly as…as, not so/as …as:



We'll give you as much help as we can.



I haven't made as much progress as I should.



We've produced twice as much cotton this year as we did ten years ago.



My command of English is not half so (as) good as yours.







2) than, so much/a lot more than, no more… than, not more…than, less than



more…than, less…than可表示"与其说…不如说…":



He is more good than bad.



He was less hurt than frightened.



The present crisis in capitalist countries is much more a political than an economic crisis.







"no + 形容词或副词比较级 + than"所表示的可以是该形容词或副词的相反的含义:



no rich than = as poor as



no bigger than = as small as



no later than = as early as



John is no better than Tom.



I have taken no more than six courses this semester.







3) the more… the more (越是…就越…)



Actually, the busier he is, the happier he feels.



The more they talked, the more encouraged they felt.







4) more of a, as much of a, less of a, etc: 当as much of a…as, more/less of a …than等结构与单数可数名词搭配时, 名词只能置于比较结构中间.



He is more of a sportsman than his brother.







Ⅸ 名词性从句: 名词性从句包括主语从句, 宾语从句, 表语从句, 同位语从句.







1. 主语从句有三类:



a) 由what等代词引导的主语从句: what表示"…所…的(东西)", 在结构上等于一个名词加一个定语从句; whatever表示"所…的一切"; whoever表示"一切…的人".



What you need is more practice



What is hard is to do good all one's life and never do anything bad.







Whatever was said here must be kept secret.



Whatever I have is at your service.







Whoever comes will be welcome.



Whoever fails to see this will make a big blunder.







b) 由连词that引起的主语从句: 这类主语从句在大多数情况下都放到句子后部去, 而用代词it做形式上的主语:



That we need more equipment is quite obvious.



It is impossible that I may not able to come.



It doesn't seem likely that she will be here.







在口语中连词that有时可以省略掉:



It's good you're so considerate.



It's a pity you missed such a fine talk.







c) 由连接代词或连接副词(或whether)引起的主语从句: 这类主语从句, 也可以放到句子后部去, 前面用it做形式上的主语.



When we shall have our sports meet is still a question.



It is still a question when we shall have our sports meet.







Whether he will join us won't make too much difference.



It won't make too much difference whether he will join us.







2宾语从句: 和主语从句及表语从句一样, 宾语从句也有以上三类.



a) 连接代词或副词引导的从句只是在某些动词后能用作宾语.



Tell me what you want.



I just can't imagine how he could have done such a thing.



Have you decided whom you are to nominate as your candidate.







能跟这类宾语从句的常见动词有: see, say, tell, ask, answer, know, decide, find out, imagine, suggest, doubt, wonder, show, discover, discuss, understand, inform, advise等. 这种动词后也常用whether或if引导的从与作宾语:



I don't know whether these figure are accurate.



I'm wondering if the letter is overweight.







这种从句有时前面可以有另一个宾语:



Has she informed you when they are to hold the meeting?



Please advise me which book I should read first.







有时这种从句也可用作及词的宾语:



Whether that is a good solution depends on how you look at it.



He was not conscious of what an important discovery he had made.



I was curious as to what he would say next.







b) 用that引导的从句作宾语的情形最为普遍, 在很多动词如boast, say, think, insist, wish, hope, suppose, see, believe, agree, acknowledge, admit, deny, expect, explain, confess, order, command, suspect, dream, suggest, propose, know, mean, notice, prefer, request, require, report, urge, 以及doubt的否定和疑问式后面都可以用它.







Ⅹ 情态动词:







1. may/might表示允许和可能:







a) 允许: 询问或说明一件事可不可以做.



May I trouble you with a question?



You may take this seat if you like.



He asked if he might glance through my album.



You might as well speak your mind. (比may…显得婉转一些)







b) 可能: 表示一件事或许发生(或是某种情况可能会存在).



You may walk ten miles without seeing a house.



She was afraid they might not like the idea.



A bad thing might be turned to good account.







c) might 表示请求:



Might I ask for a photograph of your baby? (比May I …更客气一些)







2. can't, couldn't表示否定的推测:



She can't be serious.



A more suitable book can't be found. (It is not possible to find a more suitable book.)



He couldn't (can't) be over fifty.







3. should, ought to: 表示应该做的事, ought to比should口气稍重一些.



You should (ought to) do as he says.



You shouldn't (oughtn't to) talk like that.







但这两者间也有一些差别, 在表示责任, 义务等该做的事情时, 常用ought to, 在表示某件事宜于做时, 多用should, 在下面的句子中这两个词就不宜换用:



You are his father. You ought to take care of him.



We should not use too many big words in our everyday speech.







4. will, would







5. shall, should表示意愿











6. 情态动词后接进行式, 完成式和完成进行式:



a) 情态动词可以和动词的进行式构成谓语, 表示"应该正在…", "想必正在…"这类意思:



Why should we be sitting here doing nothing?



This isn't what I ought to be doing.



She might still be thinking about the question you raised.



They must (may) be waiting for us, let's hurry up.







They can't be using the room now.



b) 情态动词有时和动词的完成形式构成谓语, 表示"应当已经…", "想必已经…"这类意思:



I should have thought of that.



They shouldn't have left so soon.



She must have arrived by now.



You needn't have told them that.



Where can (could) he have gone?



He can't have finished the work so soon.



He may not have achieved all his aims. But his effort is praise-



worthy.



We ought to have give you more help.







c) 情态动词间或也可以和一个动词的完成进行式构成谓语,表示"应当一直在…", "想必一直在…"这类意思:



They are sweating all over. They must have been working in the fields.



They may have been discussing the problem this morning.



You should have been waiting for us. Why haven't you?



She couldn't have been swimming all day.

关键字:英语语法

生词表: